Government and Society
Constitutional
framework
Under the 1999 constitution, executive
power is vested in a president who serves as both the head of state and the
chief executive, is directly elected to a four-year term, and nominates the
vice president and members of the cabinet. The constitution provides for a
bicameral National
Assembly, which
consists of the House of Representatives and the Senate. Each state elects 10
members to the House of Representatives for four-year terms; members of the
Senate—three from each state and one from the Federal Capital Territory—also
are elected to four-year terms.
Local government
There
are two tiers of government—state and local—below the federal level. The
functions of the government at the local level were usurped by the state
government until 1988, when the federal government decided to fund local
government organizations directly and allowed them for the first time to
function effectively.
Nigeria
is divided into 36 states and the Federal
Capital Territory, where the country’s capital, Abuja, is
located; the constitution also includes a provision that more states can be
created as needed. At independence the country was divided into three regions:
Northern, Eastern, and Western. The Mid-West region was created out of the
Western region in 1963. In 1967 Col. Yakubu
Gowon, then the military leader, turned the regions into 12 states: 6 in the
north, 3 in the east, and 3 in the west. Gen. Murtala
Mohammed created an additional 7 states in 1976. Gen. Ibrahim Babangida created 11 more states—2 in 1987 and 9 in
1991—for a total of 30. In 1996 Gen. Sani Abacha added 6 more states.
Nigeria administrative boundaries in 1996Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Justice
The
Nigerian legal and judicial system contains
three codes of law: customary law, Nigerian statute law (following English
law), and Sharīʿah (Islamic law).
Customary laws, administered by native, or customary, courts, are usually
presided over by traditional rulers, who generally hear cases about family
problems such as divorce. Kadis (judges) apply Sharīʿah based on the Maliki Islamic code. Since
1999, several states have instituted Sharīʿah
law. Although the states claim that the law applies only to Muslims, the
minority non-Muslim population argues that it is affected by the law as well.
Christian women, for example, must ride on female-only buses, and some states
have banned females from participating in sports.
Nigerian statute law includes much of the British colonial legislation,
most of which has been revised. State legislatures may pass laws on matters
that are not part of the Exclusive Legislative List, which includes
such areas as defense, foreign policy, and
mining—all of which are the province of the federal government. Federal law
prevails whenever federal legislation conflicts with state legislation. In addition
to Nigerian statutes, English law is used in the magistrates’ and all higher
courts. Each state has a High Court, which is presided over by a chief judge.
The Supreme Court, headed by the
chief justice of Nigeria, is the
highest court.
Political process
The
constitution grants all citizens at least 18 years
of age the right to vote. The Action Group (AG) and the Northern
People’s Congress (NPC) were the major Nigerian parties when the country
became independent in 1960. However, their regional rather than national
focus—the AG represented the west, the NPC the north, and the National Council
for Nigeria and the Cameroons the east—ultimately contributed to the outbreak
of civil war by the mid-1960s and more than 20 years of military rule.
Political parties were allowed briefly in 1993 and again starting from 1998,
but only parties with national rather than regional representation were legal,
such as the newly created People’s Democratic Party (PDP), the
Alliance for Democracy, and the All Nigeria People’s Party. Since then,
many other parties have been created, most notably the All Progressives
Congress (APC), the All Progressives Grand Alliance (APGA), and the Labour
Party.
Women have participated in the government since the colonial period,
especially in the south. Their political strength is rooted in the precolonial traditions among particular ethnic groups, such
as the Igbo, which gave women the power to correct excessive male
behaviour (known as “sitting on a man”). Igbo women, showing their strength,
rioted in 1929 when they believed colonial officials were going to levy taxes
on women. Yoruba market women exercised significant economic power,
controlling the markets in such Yoruba cities as Lagos and Ibadan.
Some ethnic groups, such as the Edo who constituted the
kingdom of Benin, also gave important political power to women; the mother
of the oba (king) played an
important part in the precolonial state. Women such
as Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti (the
mother of the musician Fela and human rights activist
and physician Beko) actively participated in the
colonial struggle, and several women have held ministerial positions in the
government. Although Nigerian women may wield influence and political power,
particularly at the familial and local level, this has not always been
reflected at the federal level: in the early 21st century, women made up about
5 percent of the House of Representatives and the
Senate. (For more information on the historical role of women in Nigerian
politics and culture, see Sidebar: Nigerian Women.)
Security
The Nigeria Police Force, established by
the federal constitution, is headed by the inspector general of police, who is
appointed by the president. The general inefficiency of the force is
attributable in part to the low level of education and the low morale of police
recruits, who are poorly housed and very poorly paid, and to the lack of modern
equipment. Corruption is widespread.
The federal military includes army, navy, and air
force contingents. Nigerian troops have participated in missions sponsored
by the Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) and by
the United Nations (UN).
Nigerian soldiers marching in Abuja, Nigeria, in
October 2010, during 50th anniversary celebrations of Nigerian independence.
Sunday Alamba/AP
Health and welfare
The concentration of people in the
cities has created enormous sanitary problems, particularly improper sewage
disposal, water shortages, and poor drainage. Large heaps of domestic refuse
spill across narrow streets, causing traffic delays, while the dumping of
garbage along streambeds constitutes a major health hazard and has
contributed to the floods that have often plagued Ibadan, Lagos, and other
cities during the rainy season. Lower respiratory infections, diarrheal
diseases, malaria, and HIV/AIDS are among the leading causes of
death. The Nigeria Centre for Disease Control was established in 2011 to
support public health.
Health
conditions are particularly poor in the shantytown suburbs of Greater Lagos and
other large cities, where domestic water supplies are obtained from wells that
are often polluted by seepage from pit latrines.
Rural communities also suffer from inadequate or impure water
supplies. Some villagers have to walk as far as 6 miles (10 km) to the nearest
water point—usually a stream. Because people wash clothes, bathe, and fish
(sometimes using fish poison) in the same streams, the water drawn by people in
villages farther downstream is often polluted. During the rainy season, wayside
pits containing rainwater, often dug close to residential areas, are the main
source of domestic water supplies. Cattle are often watered in the shallower
pools, and this contributes to the high incidence of intestinal diseases
and guinea worm in many rural areas.
Medical
and health services are the responsibility of all levels of government. There
are hospitals in the large cities and towns. Most of the state capitals have
specialized hospitals, and many are home to a university teaching hospital.
There are numerous private hospitals, clinics, and maternity centres. Medical
services are inadequate in many parts of the country, however, because of
shortages of medical personnel, modern equipment, and supplies.
Housing
Overcrowding in the cities has
caused slums to spread and shantytown suburbs to emerge in most of the larger
urban centres. Most houses are built by individuals, and, because banks do not
normally lend money for home construction, most of these individuals must rely
on their savings. A federal housing program provides funds for the construction
of low-cost housing for low- and middle-income workers in the state capitals,
local government headquarters, and other large towns.
House
types vary by geographic location. In the coastal areas the walls and roofs are
made from the raffia palm, which abounds in the region. Rectangular mud houses
with mat roofs are found in the forest belt, although the houses of the more
prosperous have corrugated iron roofs. In the savanna
areas of the central region and in parts of the north, houses are round mud
buildings roofed with sloping grass thatch, but flat mud roofs appear in the
drier areas of the extreme north. Some mud houses are also covered with a layer
of cement. Larger houses are designed around an open courtyard and
traditionally contained barrels or cisterns in which rainwater could be
collected.
· 
·
Nigeria: housing in Dareta
Health-care workers near a thatch-roofed mud dwelling in the village of Dareta, Zamfara state, northern
Nigeria.
Nigeria:
architecture
Clay houses decorated with low-relief ornament and vibrant designs,
exhibiting contemporary vernacular architecture in Zaria, Nigeria.
During the colonial period, British officials lived in
segregated housing known as Government Reserve Areas (GRA). After independence
GRA housing became very desirable among the African population.
Education
Great Britain did little to promote education during
the colonial period. Until 1950 most schools were operated by Christian
missionary bodies, which introduced Western-style education into Nigeria
beginning in the mid-19th century. The British colonial government funded a few
schools, although its policy was to give grants to mission schools rather than
to expand its own system. In the northern, predominantly Muslim area,
Western-style education was prohibited because the religious leaders did not
want Christian missionaries interfering with Islam, and Islamic education
was provided in traditional Islamic schools.
Today primary
education, free and compulsory, begins at age six and lasts for six years.
Secondary education consists of two three-year cycles, the first cycle of which
is free and compulsory. Although federal and state governments have the major
responsibility for education, other organizations, such as local governments
and religious groups, may establish and administer primary and secondary
schools. Most secondary schools, trade centres, technical institutes,
teacher-training colleges, and colleges of education and of technology are
controlled by the state governments.
Nigeria
has more than 400 universities and colleges widely dispersed throughout the
country in an attempt to make higher education easily accessible.
Many of the universities are federally controlled, and the language of
instruction is English at all the universities and colleges. At the time of
Nigeria’s independence in 1960, there were only two established postsecondary
institutions, both of which were located in the southwestern
part of the country: University College at Ibadan (founded in 1948, now the University of Ibadan) and Yaba Higher College (founded in 1934, now Yaba College of Technology). Four more government-operated
universities were established in the 1960s: University of Nigeria, Nsukka (1960), in the east; University of Ife (founded
in 1961, now Obafemi Awolowo
University) in the west; University of Northern Nigeria (founded in 1962, now Ahmadu
Bello University) in the north; and University of Lagos (1962) in the south. In the 1970s and
’80s the government attempted to found a university in every state, but, with
the ever-increasing number of states, this practice was abandoned. Numerous
federal and state universities have since been established, especially during
the 21st century. Attempts by individuals and private organizations, including
various Christian churches, to establish universities did not receive the
approval of the federal Ministry of Education until the 1990s. Since then,
dozens of private postsecondary institutions have been established.
Cultural Life
Cultural
milieu
Nigeria’s rich and varied cultural
heritage derives from the mixture of its ethnic groups with Arabic and western
European influences. The country combines traditional culture with
international urban sophistication. Secret societies, such as Ekpo and Ekpe among
the Igbo, were formerly used as instruments of government, while other
institutions were associated with matrimony. According to
the Fulani custom of sharo (test
of young manhood), rival suitors underwent the ordeal of caning as a means of
eliminating those who were less persistent. In Ibibio territory,
girls approaching marriageable age were confined for several years in
bride-fattening rooms before they were given to their husbands. A girl was
well-fed during this confinement, with the intent of making her plump and
therefore more attractive to her future husband; she would also receive
instruction from older women on how to be a good wife. These and other customs
were discouraged by colonial administrators and missionaries. Some of the more
adaptable cultural institutions have been revived since independence; these
include Ekpo and Ekong
societies for young boys in parts of the southeast and the Ogboni
society found in the Yoruba and Edo areas of southern
Nigeria. (For information on the historical role of women in Nigerian society, see Sidebar:
Nigerian Women.)
Nigeria’s vibrant popular culture reflects
great changes in inherited traditions and adaptations of imported ones.
Establishments serving alcoholic beverages are found everywhere except where
Islamic laws prohibit them. Hotels and nightclubs are part of the landscape of
the larger cities. Movie theatres, showing mostly Indian and American films,
are popular among the urban middle- and low-income groups. Radio, television,
and other forms of home entertainment (e.g., recorded music and movies) have
also grown in popularity, though their use is dependent on the availability of
electricity.
Whether
in urban or rural areas, the family is the central institution. Families gather
to celebrate births and weddings. Funerals are also times when the family
gathers. Because so many Nigerians live outside the country, funerals for
non-Muslims are often delayed for a month or more to allow all the family
members to make plans to return home.
A bride and groom posing with their
wedding guests in Nigeria.
Food is an important
part of Nigerian life. Seafood, beef, poultry, and goat are the primary sources
of protein. With so many different cultures and regions, food can
vary greatly. In the southern areas a variety of soups containing a base of
tomatoes, onions, red pepper, and palm oil are prepared with vegetables such as
okra and meat or fish. Soups can be thickened by adding ground egusi (melon)
seeds. Gari (ground
cassava), iyan (yam paste),
or plantains accompany the soup. Rice is eaten throughout the country, and in
the north grains such as millet and wheat are a large part of the
diet. Beans and root vegetables are ubiquitous. Many dishes are flavoured
with onions, palm oil, and chilies.