Comparative Politics: Nature and Major Approaches

Comparative politics is the study and appraisal of domestic politics across countries. Comparative politics has a long and very eminent history dating back just before the origin of systematic political studies in ancient Greece and Rome. Even ancient people, compared their situations with those of other people’s with whom they came in contact. The Bible is possibly one of the first written statements of comparative politics. The ancient Greeks performed the earliest systematic comparisons of a more modern and secular.

Comparative politics is key area in political science, pigeonholed by an empirical approach based on the comparative method. To put it in another way, comparative politics is the study of the domestic politics, political institutions, and conflicts of countries. It often encompasses comparisons among countries and through time within single countries, emphasizing major patterns of similarity and difference. Many political theorists like Arend Lijphart argued that comparative politics does not have a functional focus in itself, instead a methodological one (Lijphart, Arend,1971). In simple form, comparative politics is not defined by the object of its study, but by the method it applies to study political phenomena. Peter Mair and Richard Rose gave modern definition of comparative politics and stated that comparative politics is elaborated by a combination of a substantive focus on the study of countries’ political systems and a method of recognising and explaining similarities and differences between these countries using common models (Peter, 1996). Rose mentioned that in comparative politics, “The focus is explicitly or implicitly upon more than one country, thus following familiar political science usage in excluding within-nation comparison. Methodologically, comparison is distinguished by its use of concepts that are applicable in more than one country”.

In the field of Comparative politics, the term politics has three connotation such as political activities, political process and political power. Political activity consists of the efforts by which the conditions of conflicts are created and resolved in a way pertaining to the interest of people as far as possible who play in their part in struggle for power. Political process is an extension of political activity. Political power is the major topic in comparative politics. The term power has been defined by different writers. Friedrich described power as a certain kind of human relationship. Whereas Tawney explained power as a capacity of an individual or group of individuals to modify the conduct of other individuals in a manner which he desires (J. C. Johari, 1982).

Comparative government studies were used by political researchers to get correct and valid conclusions regarding the nature and organisation of state and government. Their major objective was to discover the historical and legal similarities and dissimilarities among the various governments and their political institutions. A comparative- normative-prescriptive study of constitutions was conducted. It was an attempt to recognise the best political institutions.

When applied to particular fields of study, comparative politics denotes by other names, such as comparative government (the comparative study of forms of government) or comparative foreign policy (comparing the foreign policies of different States in order to establish general empirical connections between the characteristics of the State and the characteristics of its foreign policy).

Many theorists articulated that “Comparative political science” as a general term for an area of study, as opposed to a methodology of study, can be seen as redundant. The political only shows as political when either an overt or tacit comparison is being made. A study of a single political entity, whether a society, subculture or period, would demonstrate the political as simple brute reality without comparison with another society, subculture, or period.

Different comparative method are used such as the experimental method, the statistical method and the case study approach. These are fundamental scientific methods which can be used to test the validity of theoretical propositions, often with the use of empirical data i.e. to establish relationships among two or more empirical variables or concepts while all other variables are held constant (Lijphart, A.,1971). Specifically, the comparative method is generally used when neither the experimental nor the statistical method can be implemented. Experiments can only hardly be conducted in political science. Statistical method implies the mathematical manipulation of quantitative data about a large number of cases, while sometimes political research must be conducted by analysing the behaviour of qualitative variables in a small number of cases. The case study approach cannot be regarded as a scientific method, however it can be useful to gain knowledge about single cases, which can then be put to comparison according to the comparative method (Lijphart, A., 1971).

Nature of comparative politics:

Nature and scope of comparative politics is fathomable only when one understands the main characteristics and significance of comparative government. Although the two terms ‘Comparative Politics’ and ‘Comparative Governments’ are used lightly and interchangeably, there is distinction between them. Conventionally, the comparative study of politics stands entitled as ‘comparative government’. Comparative government includes the study of features and legal powers of political institutions existing in various states. It is the study of state and other political institutions in terms of their legal powers, functions, and positions on a comparative basis.

Key characteristics of comparative government are mentioned below:

1.      – Stress upon the study of political institutions of various countries.

2.      – Focus on the study of major constitutions of the world.

3.      – Emphasis upon the study of powers and functions of various political institutions working in different countries.

4.      – Formal study of the organisation and powers, description of the features of the constitutions and political institutions, and legal powers of political institutions form the basic contents of comparative government study.

5.      – To devise a theory of ideal political institutions has been the objective.

These traits make comparative government popular area of study during the beginning of 20th century. Subsequently, Majority of political scientists greatly displeased with its narrow scope, intuitive methodology, and formal legalistic-institutional and normative approach. These researchers then adopt comprehensiveness, realism, precision and scientific study of the processes of politics as their new goal. Their efforts came to be labelled as comparative politics.

Basically, the study of comparative politics involves mindful comparisons in studying; political experiences, institutions, behaviour and processes of major systems of government. It comprises of the study of even extra constitutional agencies along with the study of formal governmental organs. It is concerned with important regularities, similarities and differences in the working of political behaviour. Consequently, comparative Politics can be defined as the subject that compare the political systems in various parts of the globe, with a view to comprehend and define the nature of politics and to devise a scientific theory of politics.

Some popular definitions of comparative politics are given below:

According to John Blondel, comparative politics is “the study of patterns of national governments in the contemporary world”. M.G. Smith described that “Comparative Politics is the study of the forms of political organisations, their properties, correlations, variations and modes of change”. E.A Freeman stated that “Comparative Politics is comparative analysis of the various forms of govt. and diverse political institutions”.

It can be established that comparative politics encompasses a comparative study of not only the institutional and mechanistic arrangements but also an empirical and scientific investigation of non-institutionalised and non-political determinants of political behaviour. Empirical study of political processes, structures and functions shapes a major part of comparative political studies.

It is demonstrated in literature that comparative analyses and compares the political systems operating in various societies. To do this, it takes into account all the three implications of politics that include political activity, political process and political power. Political activity include all the activities involved in conflict resolution or in the struggle for power. Since the basic means of conflict-resolution is the authoritative allocation of values, it involves an investigation of the process by which the authoritative values are made and implemented in all societies. In this perspective, politics denotes political process. It involves the study of all formal as well as non-formal structures through which the political process gets operationalised. The political process gets information and signals from the environment and then changes such information and signals into authoritative values. Lastly politics, being a struggle for power or a process of conflict resolution through the use of legitimate power, involves a study of power or power relations in society. Laswell pronounced politics as the process of determining and sharing of power whereas Robert Dahl maintained that politics involves power rule and authority to a significant extent. Hence, the study of politics involves the study of power. As such, comparative politics involves the study and comparison of political activity, political process and struggle for power in various political systems. It seeks to analyse and compare political systems in a holistic way as well as through a comparative analysis of their structures, functions, infra-structures and processes.

Comparative Politics is pigeonholed by numerous features. These are mentioned below:

1.      Analytical and empirical research

2.      Objective study of politics- A value free empirical study-It rejects normative descriptive methods of comparative government.

3.      Study of the infra-structure of politics-Comparative Politics, now analyses the actual behaviour of individuals; groups structures, sub-systems and systems in relation to environment. It studies the actual behaviour of all institutions.

4.      Inter-disciplinary focus: Comparative Politics focusses interdisciplinary approach. It studies politics with the help of other social science like psychology, sociology, anthropology and economics.

5.      It studies political processes in both developed and developing countries. The biased and parochial nature of traditional studies stands replaced and the study of political systems of Asia, Africa, and Latin America enjoys equal importance with the study of African and European political systems.

6.      Theory building as the objective: The objective of Comparative politics study is scientific theory building.

7.      Adoption of ‘Political Systems

With above features, Comparative politics is emerged as a new science of politics. It has prohibited the non-comprehensive scope, formal character, legal and institutionalised framework, normative approach and parochial nature of the traditional comparative government studies.

Major approaches of comparative politics:

Political investigators use different approaches tools to arrive at greater political understanding. Approaches support in defining the kinds of facts which are relevant. The diversity of approaches are used by political scientists to attack the complexity of political systems and behaviour.

Conventionally, the study of comparative politics is termed as ‘comparative government’. It includes the study of political institutions existing in various states .The features, advantages, demerits, similarities and dissimilarities of political institutions were compared. It was an attempt to ascertain the best of political institutions. The focus (Traditional view), continued to remain popular up to the end of the 19th century. In the 20th century, the study of political government underwent revolutionary changes. The traditional focus of the study of politics got substituted by new scope, methodology, concepts, techniques which was known as contemporary view of the study of politics. Political researchers made great attempts to develop a new science of ‘comparative politics’. They espoused comprehensiveness, realism, precision and use of scientific methods as the new goals for the study of comparative politics. This new endeavour is nowadays promoted as ‘modern’ comparative politics. In the modern assessment, the scope of comparative politics is much wider. It includes the analysis and comparison of the actual behaviour of political structures, formal as well as informal. Researchers believe that these political structures, governmental or non- governmental, directly or indirectly affect the process of politics in all political systems.

Traditional approaches:

The traditional approaches to Political Science was broadly predominant till the occurrence of the Second World War. These approaches were mainly associated with the traditional outlook of politics which underlined the study of the state and government. Consequently, traditional approaches are principally concerned with the study of the organization and activities of the state and principles and the ideas which motivate political organizations and activities. These approaches were normative and principled. The political philosophers supporting these approaches and raised questions such ‘what should be an ideal state?’ According to them, the study of Political Science should be limited to the formal structures of the government, laws, rules and regulations. Therefore, the supporters of the traditional approaches stress various norms such as what ‘ought to be’ or ‘should be’ rather than ‘what is’.

Characteristics of Traditional approaches:

1.      Traditional approaches are mostly normative and stresses on the values of politics.

2.      Prominence is on the study of different political structures.

3.      Traditional approaches made very little attempt to relate theory and research.

4.      These approaches consider that since facts and values are closely interlinked, studies in Political Science can never be scientific.

There are many types of traditional approaches.

1. Philosophical approach:

Philosophical approach is conventional approach to study politics. Customarily, the study of politics was subjugated by philosophical reflections on universal political values that were regarded as essential to the just state and the good state. The oldest approach to the study of politics is philosophical. Philosophy “is the study or science of truths or principles underlying all knowledge and being.” It entails that philosophy or philosophical approach tries to explore the truth of political incidents or events. It discovers the objective of political writings or the purpose of political writer.

2. Historical approach:

This approach states that political theory can be only understood when the historical factors are taken into consideration. It highlights on the study of history of every political reality to analyse any situation. Political theorists like Machiavelli, Sabine and Dunning believed that politics and history are strongly inter-related, and therefore, the study of politics always should have a historical viewpoint. Sabine considered that Political Science should include all those subjects which have been discussed in the writings of different political thinkers since Plato. History defines about the past as well as links it with the present events. Without studying the past political events, institutions and political environment, the analysis of the present would remain largely imperfect.

Main attribute of historical approach is that history as a written or recorded subject and focuses on the past events. From history, researchers come to know how man was in the past and what he is now. History is the store-house of events. From the profiles, autobiographies, descriptions by authors and journalists investigators know what event occurred in the past.

It is to be prominent that the events must have political revealing or they must be politically significant. These events provide the best materials upon which theory and principles of political science are built. History communicates researchers how government, political parties and many other institutions worked, their successes and failures and from these, they receive lessons which guide them in determining the future course of action.

Evaluation of Historical Approach: The historical approach to the study of politics has numerous challenges from several quarters. One of the main fulcrums of the challenges is that history has two faces. One is documentation of facts which is quite naive and the other is construal of facts and phenomena. The accretion of evidences is to be judged from a proper perspective.

3. Institutional approach:

There is a strong belief that philosophy, history and law have bestowed to the study of politics and it is in the field of institutional approaches. Institutional approaches are ancient and important approach to the study of Political Science. These approaches mainly deals with the formal aspects of government and politics. Institutional approach is concerned with the study of the formal political structures like legislature, executive, and judiciary. It focused on the rules of the political system, the powers of the various institutions, the legislative bodies, and how the constitution worked. Main drawback of this approach was its narrow focus on formal structures and arrangements. In far-reaching terms, an institution can be described as ‘any persistent system of activities in any pattern of group behaviour. More concretely, an institution has been regarded as ‘offices and agencies arranged in a hierarchy, each agency having certain functions and powers.

4. Legal approach:

In the realm of traditional approaches, there is a legal or juridical approach. This approach considers the state as the central organization for the creation and enforcement of laws. Therefore, this approach is associated with the legal process, legal bodies or institutions, and judiciary. In this approach, the study of politics is mixed with legal processes and institutions. Theme of law and justice are treated as not mere affairs of jurisprudence rather politics scientists look at state as the maintainer of an effective and equitable system of law and order. Matters relating to the organizations, jurisdiction and independence of judicial institutions become and essential concern of political scientists. This approach treats the state primarily as an organization for creation and enforcement of law (J. C. Johari, 1982).

The supporters of this approach are Cicero, Bodin, Hobbes, John Austin, Dicey and Henry Maine. In the system of Hobbes, the head of the state is highest legal authority and his command is law that must be obeyed either to avoid punishment following its infraction or to keep the dreadful state of nature away. Other scientists described that the study of politics is bound with legal process of country and the existence of harmonious state of liberty and equality is earmarked by the rule of law (J. C. Johari, 1982). The legal approach is applied to national as well as international politics. It stands on assumptions that law prescribes action to be taken in given contingency and also forbids the same in certain other situations. It also emphasizes the fact that where the citizens are law abiding, the knowledge of the law offers an important basis for predictions relating to political behaviour of people. Though it is effective approach but not free from criticism. This approach is narrow. Law include only one aspect of people’s life. It cannot cover entire behaviour of political actions (J. C. Johari, 1982).