Classical Realism & Neo-Realism

Introduction:

Realism is a school of political philosophy on international relations/political realtions, also called as Political Realism. It purports to be realistic in its approach and gives importance to security and national interest rather than moral concerns, ideology and social reconstructions. It is popularly known as study of power politics. Realism assumes that both in the domestic or international ground, all political actions are for achievement of power. In the international perspective, the primary instruments are states/nations, which strive for maximizing their power and in the domestic field, the statesmen or heads strive for maximizing their power. Realism is to be studied as a recommendation of what nations and politicians ought to pursue power or their own interests, or as a depiction of the affairs of the state that power or self-interest is only aim of nations and politicians.

History:

Realism, although in informal manner, can be traced to be in existence from fifth-century B.C. in the works of many thinker and philosophers. Thucydides, an ancient Greek thinker whose work, History of the Peloponnesian War is as a great resource work on realism. The account of Sun Tzu, an ancient Chinese military leader Art of War, the Kautilya’s Arthashastra exhibits Indian Literature on Realism. Han Feizi, Chinese researcher in his works Legalism, Warring States Period, The Two Handles explained about an unbiased, scheming leader who acts as Head of State, while secretly controlling the executive. Niccolò Machiavelli, a Florentine political thinker, composed the book The Prince, in which he ordained that the politician shall have the main aim to seek power, without any religious or ethical concern. Thomas Hobbes, an English philosopher wrote Leviathan enunciating that the State of Nature was prone to a “war of all against all”. Carl von Clausewitz, the Prussian general and military theorist who wrote On War, explaining all about war and nations.

Apart from the works of many authors, the regime of rulers, diplomats has also contributed to the study of realism and international relations. The Prussian monarch, Frederick the Great changed Prussia from a small power to a dominant European nation through warfare and dubious diplomacy. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, French diplomat who guided France and Europe through a variety of political systems. Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, Koblenz-born Austrian statesman opposed to political revolution. Otto von Bismarck, a Prussian statesman coined the term balance of power. Balancing power meant keeping the peace and careful realpolitik practitioners tried to avoid arms races. 20th century proponents of realism include Henry Kissinger, the National Security Adviser and Secretary of State to President Richard Nixon, French General and President Charles de Gaulle, and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin.

However, after the World War-II the study of international politics, international relations has become a separate branch of study and the classical realism emerged as the first school in the field. Hans Morgenthau, proponent of classical-realism was the person to have maximum impact on the study of International Relations. In his book, Politics Among Nations (1948), Morgenthau presented his theory of political realism, which was the basis of study of international politics for over two decades. The classical realism was followed by neo-realism, under the leadership of Kenneth Waltz. Waltz, who is considered as father of neo-realism, in his book, Theory of International Politics (1979) argued for development of a more systemic and scientific form of realism. Classical realism and Neo-realism are the two schools which are in prominence in current field of realist study of International Relations.

Classical realism V. Neo-realism:

Classical Realism believes that human nature is not innately benign but rather selfish and competitive. Human actions cannot be subject to common guiding principles, as they are very unpredictable. Decisions cannot be calculated or forseen. Its principles concentrate on the innate nature of the human beings.

Neo-realism is developed from classical realism. Neo-realism concentrates more on placed by international systems on sates rather than the nature of man. They believe that states are possessed with fear of security and intrinsically belligerent. According to neo-realists all states do not trust each other and are in the process of increasing military capabilities, through alliances and economic expansion. A state must always be conscious of activities of the nations around it and must use a pragmatic approach to resolve the problems that arise.

Conflict:

Conflict between the nations is the basic subject of study of Realism. According to classical realists the root cause of war and international conflict is an imperfect human nature. Classical realism focuses on the selfish nature of human being selfish to explain the constant development in the military force of state in the international system. It believes man has lust for power and the state as a unit which carries out its impulses at the international stage.

Neo-realists uphold that the deep causes of conflict are found in the anarchic international system. All states are sovereign and have equal standings and they act to protect their own interests, thereby leading to disparity in powers. In the mission to protect these self interests, states end up being in conflict with other states, as they cannot sacrifice their own needs for the sake of others.

Survival and Security:

Classical realism holds the egotistic human nature responsible for the military steps taken by the states. It determines that immoral behavior and political recklessness is kept under control by the common values and norms of the members of the community. It is based on the nature of the human being. This theory does not give proper explanation to all occurrences related to military systems in international politics. The use of ‘survival’ as the main reason behind military behaviours by nations is a more valid argument.

According to Neo-realism, states strive basically to make sure about their own survival it is a prior requirement for the pursuing of other objectives. The need of survival is the influences the behavior of the states and leads to development of offensive military capabilities, to enlarge the relative power of the state. There is a lack of trust between states, as they cannot be assured of future intentions of other states, which requires them to be on watch for any threat to their survival by other states. The state of uncertainty and lack of trust on the other states is referred to as concept of security dilemma.

International authority:

Classical realism relies on motives and intentions of political leaders for explaining diversities in political struggle. Hans Morgenthau suggests that power is a manifestation of the control that one human being has over another. The same theory has been applied to state and international system, but it is hard to relate the same the entire state or international system, as these are more complex institutions.

According to Neo-realists, the distribution of the capabilities, power within the international system is governed by the principle of Anarchy. As all states are sovereign powers and equal, they act for protection of their own interests leading to differential powers. Thereby some states become more powerful than others as states cannot sacrifice their own needs for the sake of others.

State:

According to classical-realism, the state is ontologically superior to the system. They differentiate between the status-quo powers and revisionist powers of the state and again derive the nature of the state from trickling of human nature. Classical realism confines its analyses to the subjective valuations of international relations. In contrast neo-realism, allows more space for agency in the former approach and regards states as unitary actors in the international setup, independent of each other. Neo-realists attempt to construct a more scientific and rigorous approach to the study of international politics and relations.