Structural geology

Structural geology deals with the geometric relationships of rocks and geologic features in general. The scope of structural geology is vast, ranging in size from submicroscopic lattice defects in crystals to mountain belts and plate boundaries.

Structures may be divided into two broad classes: the primary structures that were acquired in the genesis of a rock mass and the secondary structures that result from later deformation of the primary structures. Most layered rocks (sedimentary rocks, some lava flows, and pyroclastic deposits) were deposited initially as nearly horizontal layers. Rocks that were initially horizontal may be deformed later by folding and may be displaced along fractures.

If displacement has occurred and the rocks on the two sides of the fracture have moved in opposite directions from each other, the fracture is termed a fault; if displacement has not occurred, the fracture is called a joint. It is clear that faults and joints are secondary structures; i.e., their relative age is younger than the rocks that they intersect, but their age may be only slightly younger. Many joints in igneous rocks, for example, were produced by contraction when the rocks cooled. On the other hand, some fractures in rocks, including igneous rocks, are related to weathering processes and expansion associated with removal of overlying load. These will have been produced long after the rocks were formed.

The faults and joints referred to above are brittle structures that form as discrete fractures within otherwise undeformed rocks in cool upper levels of the crust. In contrast, ductile structures result from permanent changes throughout a wide body of deformed rock at higher temperatures and pressures in deeper crustal levels. Such structures include folds and cleavage in slate belts, foliation in gneisses, and mineral lineation in metamorphic rocks.

The methods of structural geology are diverse. At the smallest scale, lattice defects and dislocations in crystals can be studied in images enlarged several thousand times with transmission electron microscopes. Many structures can be examined microscopically, using the same general techniques employed in petrology, in which sections of rock mounted on glass slides are ground very thin and are then examined by transmitted light with polarizing microscopes. Of course, some structures can be studied in hand specimens, which were preferably oriented when collected in the field.

On a large scale, the techniques of field geology are employed. These include the preparation of geologic maps that show the areal distribution of geologic units selected for representation on the map. They also include the plotting of the orientation of such structural features as faults, joints, cleavage, small folds, and the attitude of beds with respect to three-dimensional space. A common objective is to interpret the structure at some depth below the surface. It is possible to infer with some degree of accuracy the structure beneath the surface by using information available at the surface. If geologic information from drill holes or mine openings is available, however, the configuration of rocks in the subsurface commonly may be interpreted with much greater assurance as compared with interpretations involving projection to depth based largely on information obtained at the surface. Vertical graphic sections are widely used to show the configuration of rocks beneath the surface. Balancing cross sections is an important technique in thrust belts. The lengths of individual thrust slices are added up and the total restored length is compared with the present length of the section and thus the percentage of shortening across the thrust belt can be calculated. In addition, contour maps that portray the elevation of particular layers with respect to sea level or some other datum are widely used, as are contour maps that represent thickness variations.

Strain analysis is another important technique of structural geology. Strain is change in shape; for example, by measuring the elliptical shape of deformed ooliths or concretions that must originally have been circular, it is possible to make a quantitative analysis of the strain patterns in deformed sediments. Other useful kinds of strain markers are deformed fossils, conglomerate pebbles, and vesicles. A long-term aim of such analysis is to determine the strain variations across entire segments of mountain belts. This information is expected to help geologists understand the mechanisms involved in the formation of such belts.

A combination of structural and geophysical methods are generally used to conduct field studies of the large-scale tectonic features mentioned below. Field work enables the mapping of the structures at the surface, and geophysical methods involving the study of seismic activity, magnetism, and gravity make possible the determination of the subsurface structures.

The processes that affect geologic structures rarely can be observed directly. The nature of the deforming forces and the manner in which the Earth’s materials deform under stress can be studied experimentally and theoretically, however, thus providing insight into the forces of nature. One form of laboratory experimentation involves the deformation of small, cylindrical specimens of rocks under very high pressures. Other experimental methods include the use of scale models of folds and faults consisting of soft, layered materials, in which the objective is to simulate the behaviour of real strata that have undergone deformation on a larger scale over much longer time.

Some experiments measure the main physical variables that control rock deformation—namely, temperature, pressure, deformation rate, and the presence of fluids such as water. These variables are responsible for changing the rheology of rocks from rigid and brittle at or near the Earth’s surface to weak and ductile at great depths. Thus, experimental studies aim to define the conditions under which deformation occurs throughout the Earth’s crust.