Theories Of Reaction Rates
Two different theoretical approaches to chemical kinetics have led to an understanding of the details of how elementary chemical reactions occur. Both of these are based on the idea of potential-energy surfaces, which are models showing how the potential energy of a reaction system varies with certain critical interatomic distances. The course of an elementary reaction is represented by the movement of the system over the potential-energy surface. One theoretical approach to the problem involves studying the region of the potential-energy surface that corresponds to the highest point on the energy barrier that separates the reactants from the products. This approach is relatively simple and leads to explicit general expressions for the reaction rate. The second approach involves considering the dynamics of the motion of the system over the potential-energy surface.
The idea of a potential-energy surface sprang from the ideas of Dutch physical chemist Jacobus Henricus van ’t Hoff and Swedish physicist Svante August Arrhenius that were put forward to explain the effect of temperature on reaction rates. An important advance was made in 1931 by American chemist Henry Eyring and British chemist Michael Polanyi, who constructed, on the basis of quantum mechanics, a potential-energy surface for the simple reaction
Hα + Hβ―Hγ → Hα―Hβ―Hγ → Hα―Hβ + Hγ.
For convenience the labels α, β, and γ are added as superscripts. When this reaction occurs, an atom Hα attacks a hydrogen molecule Hβ―Hγ and abstracts one of the hydrogen atoms from it. As the bond begins to form, the Hβ―Hγ bond becomes more and more extended and finally breaks. Somewhere along the reaction path, there is a particular intermediate state corresponding to the maximum value of the potential energy.
This particular intermediate state is usually designated by the superscript ‡ (used above in the discussion of the Arrhenius equation). It is known as an activated complex and plays an important role in what has come to be called transition-state theory, developed independently in 1935 by Eyring, Polanyi, and English physical chemist M.G. Evans. The essential feature of the theory is that the activated complexes are considered to be formed from the reactants in a state in which they are in equilibrium with the reactants. Thus, the above reaction can be written as
Hα + Hβ―Hγ → Hα―Hβ―Hγ‡ (at equilibrium with Hα + Hβ―Hγ) → Hα―Hβ + Hγ.
Since the activated complexes are in equilibrium, their concentration can be expressed in terms of the concentrations of the reactants. The reaction rate is this concentration multiplied by the frequency with which they form products, which is known from kinetic theory. Despite the approximations involved in transition-state theory, it has been successful in providing an insight into how chemical reactions occur and how their rates depend on various factors.
The second theoretical approach to chemical kinetics is referred to as molecular dynamics, or reaction dynamics. It is a more detailed treatment of reactions and is designed to investigate the atomic motions that occur during a chemical reaction and the quantum states of the reactant and product molecules. Such studies are important in testing the validity of transition-state theory and similar treatments. Also, there are important practical applications of kinetics, such as reactions occurring in lasers, for which information about the energy states of the products of a chemical reaction is needed; this information is not provided by transition-state theory but is an important outcome of molecular dynamics.
Consider a simple reaction of the type A + B―C → Y + Z, where A is an atom and B―C is a diatomic molecule. A dynamical calculation would first involve calculating, using quantum mechanics, a potential-energy surface that gives the potential energy corresponding to a set of initial configurations. One can make dynamical calculations for a variety of vibrational states of the reactant B―C and for a variety of translational energies. Ideally the calculations would be based on quantum mechanics, but this proves difficult, and often classical mechanics is used. Except for certain types of reactions where quantum effects are important, it appears that for many reaction systems the error involved in neglecting quantum effects is not great. In principle the dynamical calculations should give more-reliable results than any other treatment; however, for any but the simplest reactions, the computer calculations are time-consuming, and, since many approximations must be made to save computer time, there is often some uncertainty about the results.
Much work has been done along these lines, and on the whole the agreement with both experiment and transition-state theory is satisfactory. In addition, some calculations suggest important generalizations about reactions. For example, the form of the potential-energy surface greatly influences whether energy released in a reaction resides in the vibrations of the product molecules or in their kinetic energy of translation. Experimental studies of simple reactions, particularly some that involve the study of light emission in reactions (chemiluminescence) and that use narrow molecular beams, have also contributed to knowledge of chemical reactions.