Materials for cutting tool

1 Carbon Steels
Carbon steels have been used since the 1880s for cutting tools. However carbon steels start to soften at a temperature of about 180^oC. This limitation means that such tools are rarely used for metal cutting operations. Plain carbon steel tools, containing about 0.9% carbon and about 1% manganese, hardened to about 62 Rc, are widely used for woodworking and they can be used in a router to machine aluminium sheet up to about 3mm thick.

2 High Speed Steel (HSS)
HSS tools are so named because they were developed to cut at higher speeds. Developed around 1900 HSS are the most highly alloyed tool steels. The tungsten (T series) were developed first and typically contain 12 - 18% tungsten, plus about 4% chromium and 1 - 5% vanadium. Most grades contain about 0.5% molybdenum and most grades contain 4 - 12% cobalt.

It was soon discovered that molybdenum (smaller proportions)could be substituted for most of the tungsten resulting in a more economical formulation which had better abrasion resistance than the T series and undergoes less distortion during heat treatment. Consequently about 95% of all HSS tools are made from M series grades. These contain 5 - 10% molybdenum, 1.5 - 10% tungsten, 1 - 4% vanadium, 4% Chromium and many grades contain 5 - 10% cobalt.

HSS tools are tough and suitable for interrupted cutting and are used to manufacture tools of complex shape such as drills, reamers, taps, dies and gear cutters. Tools may also be coated to improve wear resistance. HSS accounts for the largest tonnage of tool materials currently used. Typical cutting speeds: 10 - 60 m/min.

3 Cast Cobalt Alloys
Introduced in early 1900s these alloys have compositions of about 40 - 55% cobalt, 30% chromium and 10 - 20% tungsten and are not heat treatable. Maximum hardness values of 55 - 64 Rc. They have good wear resistance but are not as tough as HSS but can be used at somewhat higher speeds than HSS. Now only in limited use.

4 Carbides
Also known as cemented carbides or sintered carbides were introduced in the 1930s and have high hardness over a wide range of temperatures, high thermal conductivity, high Young's modulus making them effective tool and die materials for a range of applications.
The two groups used for machining are tungsten carbide and titanium carbide, both types may be coated or uncoated.
Tungsten carbide particles (1 to 5 micro-m) are are bonded together in a cobalt matrix using powder metallurgy. The powder is pressed and sintered to the required insert shape. titanium and niobium carbides may also be included to impart special properties.
A wide range of grades are available for different applications.
Sintered carbide tips are the dominant type of material used in metal cutting.
The proportion of cobalt (the usual matrix material) present has a significant effect on the properties of carbide tools. 3 - 6% matrix of cobalt gives greater hardness while 6 - 15% matrix of cobalt gives a greater toughness while decreasing the hardness, wear resistance and strength. Tungsten carbide tools are commonly used for machining steels, cast irons and abrasive non-ferrous materials.
Titanium carbide has a higher wear resistance than tungsten but is not as tough. With a nickel-molybdenum alloy as the matrix, TiC is suitable for machining at higher speeds than those which can be used for tungsten carbide. Typical cutting speeds are: 30 - 150 m/min or 100 - 250 when coated.

5 Coatings
Coatings are frequently applied to carbide tool tips to improve tool life or to enable higher cutting speeds. Coated tips typically have lives 10 times greater than uncoated tips. Common coating materials include titanium nitride, titanium carbide and aluminium oxide, usually 2 - 15 micro-m thick. Often several different layers may be applied, one on top of another, depending upon the intended application of the tip. The techniques used for applying coatings include chemical vapour deposition (CVD) plasma assisted CVD and physical vapour deposition (PVD).
Diamond coatings are also in use and being further developed.

6 Cermets
Developed in the 1960s, these typically contain 70% aluminium oxide and 30% titanium carbide. Some formulation contain molybdenum carbide, niobium carbide and tantalum carbide. Their performance is between those of carbides and ceramics and coatings seem to offer few benefits. Typical cutting speeds: 150 - 350 m/min.

7 Ceramics -
Alumina
Introduced in the early 1950s, two classes are used for cutting tools: fine grained high purity aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) and silicon nitride (Si₃N₄) are pressed into insert tip shapes and sintered at high temperatures. Additions of titanium carbide and zirconium oxide (ZrO₂) may be made to improve properties. But while ZrO₂ improves the fracture toughness, it reduces the hardness and thermal conductivity. Silicon carbide (SiC) whiskers may be added to give better toughness and improved thermal shock resistance.
The tips have high abrasion resistance and hot hardness and their superior chemical stability compared to HSS and carbides means they are less likely to adhere to the metals during cutting and consequently have a lower tendency to form a built up edge. Their main weakness is low toughness and negative rake angles are often used to avoid chipping due to their low tensile strengths. Stiff machine tools and work set ups should be used when machining with ceramic tips as otherwise vibration is likely to lead to premature failure of the tip. Typical cutting speeds: 150 - 650 m/min.
Silicon Nitride
In the 1970s a tool material based on silicon nitride was developed, these may also contain aluminium oxide, yttrium oxide and titanium carbide. SiN has an affinity for iron and is not suitable for machining steels. A specific type is 'Sialon', containing the elements: silicon, aluminium, oxygen and nitrogen. This has higher thermal shock resistance than silicon nitride and is recommended for machining cast irons and nickel based superalloys at intermediate cutting speeds.

8 Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN)
Introduced in the early 1960s, this is the second hardest material available after diamond. cBN tools may be used either in the form of small solid tips or or as a 0.5 to 1 mm thick layer of of polycrystalline boron nitride sintered onto a carbide substrate under pressure. In the latter case the carbide provides shock resistance and the cBN layer provides very high wear resistance and cutting edge strength. Cubic boron nitride is the standard choice for machining alloy and tool steels with a hardness of 50 Rc or higher. Typical cutting speeds: 30 - 310 m/min.

9 Diamond
The hardest known substance is diamond. Although single crystal diamond has been used as a tool, they are brittle and need to be mounted at the correct crystal orientation to obtain optimal tool life. Single crystal diamond tools have been mainly replaced by polycrystalline diamond (PCD). This consists of very small synthetic crystals fused by a high temperature high pressure process to a thickness of between 0.5 and 1mm and bonded to a carbide substrate. The result is similar to cBN tools. The random orientation of the diamond crystals prevents the propagation of cracks, improving toughness.
Because of its reactivity, PCD is not suitable for machining plain carbon steels or nickel, titanium and cobalt based alloys.
PCD is most suited to light uninterrupted finishing cuts at almost any speed and is mainly used for very high speed machining of aluminium - silicon alloys, composites and other non - metallic materials. Typical cutting speeds: 200 - 2000 m/min.

10 Other Materials
To improve the toughness of tools, developments are being carried out with whisker reinforcement, such as silicon nitride reinforced with silicon carbide whiskers.

Tool Life Curves
The Taylor tool life equation can be written as: v(T)ⁿ = C, where
v is the cutting speed, m/min, T is the tool life, in minutes, C is the cutting speed for a tool life of 1 minute and n is the Taylor exponent (Do not confuse this use of n with the cold working index n).

Dr David J Grieve, 23rd March 2009.