Marxist and Social Theory

The Basic View of Marxism on Human Rights

Reading through the timeless classics which radiates the dazzling truth of Marx and Engels, especially their important literature such as A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right, The Communist Manifesto, On the Jewish Question, The German Ideology, Anti-Dühring, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State, Socialism: Utopian and Scientific, Capital, and Critique of the Gotha Program, we can clearly see that Marx and Engels expounded much on major theoretical issues concerning human rights and freedom, democracy, equality, law, and the state, and formed clear views on human rights, freedom, rights, democracy, equality, law, and the state. These are important components of the Marxist theoretical system and important parts of the Marxist historical materialism. In the contemporary era, these important thoughts still possess great practical and theoretical value.

Based on the author’s understanding and exploration of the Marxist view on human rights, the important points of Marx and Engels on human rights are summarized into the following four aspects.

A. A scientific interpretation of the meaning and origin of human rights

Marx and Engels stated in The German Ideology that human rights are “the most general form of rights”1. Marx also stated in On the Jewish Question that, “The so-called human rights (droits de l’homme) which are different from civil rights (droits du citoyen) are nothing more than the rights of a member of civil society, that is, human rights deprived of the self-interested nature of human beings and the community.”2 Engels also stated in Anti-Dühring that human rights mean that, “Everyone, or at least all citizens of a country, or all members of a society, should have equal political status and social status.”3

Marx made it clear that human rights are a product of history and the commodity economy, not “natural”. The bourgeois human rights constitute an important stage in the development of human rights, which is determined by the full development of capitalist commodity production and exchange. Marx stated in the manuscript of Das Kapital that, “If economic forms and exchanges established the equality of subjects in all respects, then the content, namely the personal and material goods which motivated the individuals to exchange, established freedom. It is thus evident that equality and freedom are not merely respected in exchanges based on exchange values. The exchange of exchange values is the basis of all equality and freedom in terms of production and realistic meaning. As a pure concept, equality and freedom are merely an idealized representation of the exchange of values. Equality and freedom, which have been developed in legal, political, and social relations, are just another form of this basis.”4 Engels also said that due to the development of the capitalist economy, in the late Middle Ages in Europe, “For the first time a firm cultural region was created, and for the first time a system formed chiefly by nation-states with mutual influences and mutual precautions was established in this region. This has provided a basis. The further discussion about human equality and human rights was only possible on this basis.”5 He added, “As soon as the economic progress of society puts on the agenda the demands to get rid of feudalism and establish equal rights by eliminating feudal inequality, these demands are bound to rapidly expand … These demands would naturally obtain a universal nature beyond the scope of individual countries. Therefore, freedom and equality will be declared human rights naturally.”6 This shows that human rights based on freedom and equality, whether they are expressed in the form of pure ideology or legal norms, or in the form of political demands or social relations, can only be a reflection of the development of a commodity economy. They are dependent on and subject to the commodity economy. The emergence of human rights has both a theoretical basis and a material basis. Such a basis cannot be found in the human nature. It can only be found in the dominating production relations in that era. The development of the commodity economy and the advancement of social culture are the decisive factors for the emergence of human rights.

B. A profound revelation of the class essence and hypocrisy of bourgeois human rights

In response to the bourgeois human rights, Marx pointed out that “equal exploitation of the labor force is the primary human right of capital”.7 Marx and Engels pointed out in The German Ideology that “human rights are essentially a privilege, and private ownership is essentially a monopoly”.8 Engels also pointed out in Anti-Dühring, “One of the most important human rights declared is the ownership rights of the bourgeoisie.”9 Marx penetratingly expounded in On the Jewish Question, “The practical application of the human right of freedom is the human right of private property,” and “the human right of private property is to use and dispose of one’s own property arbitrarily, independent of others, and free from social constraints; this right is the right to selfishness”.10 He added that in the capitalist society, “Human rights do not free people from property, but they give people the freedom to possess property; human rights do not help people give up the filthy pursuit of wealth, but only give people the freedom to operate.”11 Even though these important statements of Marx and Engels were made more than 100 years ago, they are still applicable to the realities of contemporary capitalist countries. Although the politics, economy, and culture of the contemporary capitalist society have undergone great changes, and even great progress, the class nature of human rights has not changed, nor is it possible to see a fundamental change. In essence, human rights are still the privilege of capitalists. At the same time, Marx and Engels also believed that the bourgeois human rights are extremely hypocritical. Marx believed that under the capitalist social system, there are two kinds of human rights: “equality and security”. Equality was nothing but equality in terms of political freedom, namely “everyone is treated equally as a lonely monad”, “security is but the guarantee of this kind of egoism”12. In fact, this “equality” and “security” are hypo-critical to the proletariat. Engels said in The State of Germany that “the principle of equality was canceled because it was limited to ‘the equality in law’. The equality in law is the equality under the premise that the rich and the poor are not equal. In short, it is simply to call inequality equal.”13 He added that “Political freedom is a fake freedom and the worst form of slavery; this freedom is only nominal and thus is actually slavery.”14

C. Human rights are a developing concept subject to the economic and cultural conditions of the society

Human rights were produced and developed in the historical process of human society. They are not in existence from the beginning, nor are they eternal. The understanding of human rights should be under a dialectical thinking of development and should also be based on the methodology of historical materialism.

Marx clearly stated in Critique of the Gotha Program that, “Rights must not go beyond the economic structure of the society and the cultural development of the society governed by the economic structure.”15 If one talks about human rights without considering a country’s economic structure and scientific and cultural development, one is prone to make naive and forward-looking mistakes on human rights issues and fall into unrealistic illusions.

D. The proletariat should use human rights well to realize their own interests

The proletariat should not reject “general human rights”. However, they should use the bourgeois human rights to serve their own political and economic interests. Engels pointed out in Principles of Communism that, “If the proletariat cannot immediately use democracy to implement various means which directly violate private ownership and ensure the survival of the proletariat, then this kind of democracy would be useless to the proletariat.”16 The proletariat must not only use bourgeois human rights to serve their own political and economic interests, but also strive for more general human rights such as a broader democratic freedom, truly equal political and social status, and the full and free development of human beings.

From the above brief introduction to the view on human rights of Marx and Engels, we can easily find that the Marxist view on human rights contains profound historic, class, economic, and development views on human rights, as well as the unification of rights and obligations. This is the basic standpoint and essence of the Marxist view on human rights.