Thermodynamics and Energy

Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Although everybody has a feeling of what energy is, it is difficult to give a precise definition for it. Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause changes. The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words thermo (heat) and dynamics (power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power.

Today the same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy transformations, including power generation, refrigeration, and relationships among the properties of matter.

One of the most fundamental laws of nature is the conservation of energy principle. It simply states that during an interaction, energy can change from one form to another but the total amount of energy remains constant. That is, energy cannot be created or destroyed. A rock falling off a cliff, for example, picks up speed as a result of its potential energy being converted to kinetic energy.

Forms of Energy

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy (E) of a system. The microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity, and they are independent of outside reference frames.

The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a system and is denoted by U. The portion of the internal energy of a system associated with the kinetic energies of the molecules is called the sensible energy and the other portion associated with the phase of a system is called the latent energy.

Properties of a system

Any characteristic of a system is called a property. Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive. Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density. Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size-or extent-of the system. Mass, volume and total energy are some examples of extensive properties.

An easy way to determine whether a property is intensive or extensive is to divide the system into two equal parts with an imaginary partition. Each part will have the same value of intensive properties as the original system, but half the value of the extensive properties.

Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states. The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system. A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is isolated from its surroundings.

There are many types of equilibrium, and a system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium unless the conditions of all the relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied. For example, a system is in thermal equilibrium if the temperature is the same throughout the entire system. That is, the system involves no temperature differential, which is the driving force for heat flow.

Mechanical equilibrium is related to pressure, and a system is in mechanical equilibrium if there is no change in pressure at any point of the system with time. However, the pressure may vary within the system with elevation as a result of gravitational effects.

Open system and Closed system

A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. The mass or region outside the system is called the surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings is called the boundary. The boundary of a system can be fixed or movable. Note that the boundary is the contact surface shared by both the system and the surroundings. Mathematically speaking, the boundary has zero thickness, and thus it can neither contain any mass nor occupy any volume in space.

Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.

A closed system (also known as a control mass) consists of a fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed system, but energy in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary; and the volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed. If, as a special case, even energy is not allowed to cross the boundary, that system is called an isolated system.

An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly selected region in space. It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle. Flow through these devices is best studied by selecting the region within the device as the control volume. Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control.