Adaptive control
Improvements in CNC machine tools depend on the refinement of adaptive control, which is the automatic monitoring and adjustment of machining conditions in response to variations in operation performance. With a manually controlled machine tool, the operator watches for changes in machining performance (caused, for example, by a dull tool or a harder workpiece) and makes the necessary mechanical adjustments. An essential element of NC and CNC machining, adaptive control is needed to protect the tool, the workpiece, and the machine from damage caused by malfunctions or by unexpected changes in machine behaviour. Adaptive control is also a significant factor in developing unmanned machining techniques.
One example of adaptive control is the monitoring of torque to a machine tool’s spindle and servomotors. The control unit of the machine tool is programmed with data defining the minimum and maximum values of torque allowed for the machining operation. If, for example, a blunt tool causes the maximum torque, a signal is sent to the control unit, which corrects the situation by reducing the feed rate or altering the spindle speed.
A further development in the automation of machine tools is the “machining centre,” usually a vertical milling machine fitted with automatic tool-changing facilities and capable of several axes of control. The tools, of which there can be more than 100, are generally housed in a rotary magazine and may be changed by commands from the machine tool program. Thus, different faces of a workpiece can be machined by a combination of operations without moving it to another machine tool. Machining centres are particularly suitable for the batch production of large and complex components requiring a high degree of accuracy.
The technology of CNC machine tools has been enhanced by parallel advances in CAD/CAM. In the first NC systems, CAD and CAM were regarded as separate functions. Gradually they have come to be treated as an integrated operation, with manufacturing processes being considered at the product design stage.
CAD enables designers to use computers to analyze and manipulate design data. Using a graphics workstation or computer terminal to display three-dimensional figures, the designer can examine a proposed design from different angles, in various cross sections, and in many sizes. Details of the completed design are transferred to a second terminal on which a set of engineering drawings can be produced. All aspects of the design are closely scrutinized at this stage, and, after final changes are made, the finished, fully dimensioned design is drawn on a specialized computer printer called a plotter.
CAD/CAM systems also allow design data to be stored in numerical (digitized) form, from which machine-control tapes and disks may be prepared directly. The CAD and CAM systems may then be linked by computer-assisted part programming. With this technique a CAD system can produce a geometrical profile of a required component as, for example, a series of connected points. The position of each point, and the ways in which it can be reached by movements of the tool, is fed to the computer. After calculating the necessary tool movements, the computer develops a complete machining program for the part to be manufactured on the CNC machine.
The utilization of CNC machine tools has been stimulated by the introduction of robots—devices designed to move components, tools, and materials by specific motions and through defined paths. Robots can have memories (stored sets of instructions) and may be equipped with mechanisms that automatically perform many tasks such as the loading and unloading of parts, assembly, inspection, welding, painting, and machining. Its arm and wrist move like those of humans, each axis of motion being driven by an electric or hydraulic motor. The wrist is usually fitted with an “end effector,” an element to which devices are added to help perform specific required operations. These devices can include a two- or three-finger gripper for material handling, a power tool for drilling, or an arc-welding gun. “Intelligent” robots are also available. These have end effectors fitted with tactile or visual sensing devices that can determine the proximity of the object to be manipulated or machined.
A group of manufacturing cells linked by an automatic material handling system and a central computer is called a flexible manufacturing system. The computerized coordination of FMS enables components to be produced at very low costs, even when only small quantities are to be made. The main feature of FMS is its ability to switch from the machining of one component to another (or between separate manufacturing processes) without undue interruption. Each machine control unit stores many part-producing programs in its computer memory. The FMS master computer uses direct numerical control (DNC) to select and activate these programs as they are needed during the manufacturing process. As the master computer governs the supply of workpieces to the machine, the part program controls individual tooling. If a variety of machining operations are needed, a large number of tools may have to be carried: some milling operations, for example, require 60 to 100 tools.
Computers have come to be used in all stages of manufacture: design, scheduling, management, manufacturing, and testing. The integration of these phases of computer involvement is called computer-integrated manufacturing. For further information about robots, see the article automation.
Traditional machining processes work on the principle that the tool is harder than the workpiece. Some materials, however, are too hard or too brittle to be machined by conventional methods. The use of very hard nickel-based and titanium alloys by the aircraft engine industry, for example, has stimulated nonconventional machining methods, especially “electrical methods.”
Some machining methods rely on electrical phenomena—rather than mechanical means—for cutting and machining workpieces.
The EBM technique is used for cutting fine holes and slots in any material. In a vacuum chamber, a beam of high-velocity electrons is focused on a workpiece. The kinetic energy of the electrons, upon striking the workpiece, changes to heat, which vaporizes minute amounts of the material. The vacuum prevents the electrons from scattering, due to collisions with gas molecules. EBM is used for cutting holes as small as 0.001 inch (0.025 millimetre) in diameter or slots as narrow as 0.001 inch in materials up to 0.250 inch (6.25 millimetres) in thickness. EBM is also used as an alternative to light optics manufacturing methods in the semiconductor industry. Because electrons have a shorter wavelength than light and can be easily focused, electron-beam methods are particularly useful for high-resolution lithography and for the manufacture of complex integrated circuits. Welding can also be done with an electron beam, notably in the manufacture of aircraft engine parts.