Anatomy and Physiology

Introduction

Since biomedical engineering is an interdisciplinary field based in both engineering and the life sciences, it is important for biomedical engineers to have knowledge about and be able to communicate in both areas. Biomedical engineers must understand the basic components of the body and how they function well enough to exchange ideas and information with physicians and life scientists. Two of the most basic terms and areas of study in the life sciences are anatomy and physiology. Anatomy refers to the internal and external structures of the body and their physical relationships, whereas physiology refers to the study of the functions of those structures.

Figure 3.1a shows a male body in anatomical position. In this position, the body is erect and facing forward, with the arms hanging at the sides and the palms facing outward. This particular view shows the anterior (ventral) side of the body, whereas Figure 3.1c illustrates the posterior (dorsal) view of another male body that is also in anatomical position, and Figure 3.1b presents the lateral view of the female body. In clinical practice, directional terms are used to describe the relative positions of various parts of the body. Proximal parts are nearer to the trunk of the body or to the attached end of a limb than are distal parts (Figure 3.1a). Parts of the body that are located closer to the head than other parts when the body is in anatomical position are said to be superior (Figure 3.1b), whereas those located closer to the feet than other parts are termed inferior. Medial implies that a part is toward the midline of the body, whereas lateral means away from the midline (Figure 3.1c). Parts of the body that lie in the direction of the head are said to be in the cranial direction,

FIGURE 3.1 (a) Anterior view of male body in anatomical position. (b) Lateral view of female body. (c) Posterior view of male body in anatomical position. Relative directions (proximal and distal, superior and inferior, and medial and lateral) are also shown.

FIGURE 3.2 The body can be divided into sections by the frontal, sagittal, and transverse planes. The midsagittal plane goes through the midline of the body.

whereas those parts that lie in the direction of the feet are said to be in the caudal direction (Figure 3.2).

Anatomical locations can also be described in terms of planes. The plane that divides the body into two symmetric halves along its midline is called the midsaggital plane (Figure 3.2). Planes that are parallel to the midsaggital plane but do not divide the body into symmetric halves are called sagittal planes. The frontal plane is perpendicular to the midsaggital plane and divides the body into asymmetric anterior and posterior portions. Planes that cut across the body and are perpendicular to the midsaggital and frontal planes are called transverse planes.

Human bodies are divided into two main regions: axial and appendicular. The axial part consists of the head, neck, thorax (chest), abdomen, and pelvis, while the appendicular part consists of the upper and lower extremities. The upper extremities, or limbs, include the shoulders, upper arms, forearms, wrists, and hands, while the lower extremities include the hips, thighs, lower legs, ankles, and feet. The abdominal region can be further divided into nine regions or four quadrants.

The cavities of the body hold the internal organs. The major cavities are the dorsal and ventral body cavities, while smaller ones include the nasal, oral, orbital (eye), tympanic (middle ear), and synovial (movable joint) cavities. The dorsal body cavity includes the cranial cavity that holds the brain and the spinal cavity that contains the spinal cord. The ventral body cavity contains the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities that are separated by the diaphragm. The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the mediastinum, which contains the heart and its attached blood vessels, the trachea, the esophagus, and all other organs in this region except for the lungs. The abdominopelvic cavity is divided by an imaginary line into the abdominal and pelvic cavities. The former is the largest cavity in the body and holds the stomach, small and large intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys, and gallbladder. The latter contains the urinary bladder, the rectum, and the internal portions of the reproductive system.

The anatomical terms described previously are used by physicians, life scientists, and biomedical engineers when discussing the whole human body or its major parts. Correct use of these terms is vital for biomedical engineers to communicate with health care professionals and to understand the medical problem of concern or interest. While it is important to be able to use the general terms that describe the human body, it is also important for biomedical engineers to have a basic understanding of some of the more detailed aspects of human anatomy and physiology.