Origin of political institutions in ancient India

Political Thought and institutions in Ancient India

Political Thought and institutions in Ancient India We are justifiably proud of the great strides India made in ancient times in the realms of religion and philosophy, literature and art. But India's achievements in the field of politics have been no less remarkable. We had well governed states, we had elaborate political treatises containing gems of political wisdom, we had a long time of illustrious kings whose virtuous conduct and glorious deeds are still recounted Like other sciences and arts, the science of politics is also considered to be divine in origin in ancient Indian political thought. It is known by various terms Arthashastra, Nitishastra, Danda Niti, Nrip shastra etc. vaishalaksha or lord Shiva is regarded as the first exponent of the principles of politics. Lord Shiva is regarded, in tradition, as the author of a treatise on Rajdharma which contained ten thousand chapters. Later on, this gigantic treatise was abridged by Indra or Bahudantak, Brihaspati and Shkra.

All Later treatises on politics derive their fundamental principles from these divine or semi-divine sources. This tradition of political thought was enriched by valuable contributions of Manu, Kautilya, Kamandaka, Lalhan, Chandeshwar, Anant Dev, Mitra Mishra, Neelkanth, etc. It is important to note that right upto 19th century large number of kingdoms in the various parts of India were being governed on the basis of the principles expounded in above-mentioned texts even though India had lost her independence after the advent of Muslim rule and later on the British rule. Thus we can say that there is a remarkable continuity in the development of ideas concerning state and government. Then there are breaks as when Islam entered India or western culture came in. But in these periods also, particularly in the medieval period, there were attempts to combine earlier ideas with Islam. But with the advent of the British, a new political Indian emerged and took hold of the minds of the people.

The ancient thinkers regarded Politics as part and parcel of the Dharma or the Cosmic Law. Dharma is the ultimate sovereign because It binds kings as well as the people. Politics is not independent or autonomous; it is subordinate and subservient to the ethical ends. Politics has an instrumental value; state and government find their utility and dignity insofar as they help men and women in attaining Artha and kama and finally the ultimate end- Moksha. In ancient Greece, the renowned philosophers Socrates, Plats and Aristotle also regarded state as a means of 'good life'. Thus ancient thinkers emphasized a close relationship between ethics and politics. In ancient India, two types of polity are bound- monarchies and republics or quasi republics. The former represented the dominant type and not only absorbed the latter but themselves were actually merged into a single empire.

The remarkable advance in the composition and functions of the monarchic states is illustrated in such branches as the structure of the centre government, economic organisation, finance, justice and Law, military organisation, inter-state relations etc. The republics developed their most interesting institution of popular assemblies with their distinctive rules of business procedure. Political thought of ancient India expounds the theory of the seven organs of state or ' lIrkax '. These seven organs of state are-king, council of ministers, nation (Rastra or Janpada), Capital or Fort (Durg), Treasury or Kosh, Army or Bala and friendly states or Mitra. The King is credited with supreme executive, judicial and military authority, and his ruling power is indicated by vedic technical terms such as Iswara, adhipati and swami.

The king is the essential unit of social order, as without a king there would be anarchy in which order would perish, the strong would devour the weak, none would be able to perform his obligations and live a happy existence. The main duty of the king is to protect the good and punish the wicked. He must remove the thorns in the path of good life. Shukra says that a good king combines in himself the attributes of seven persons father, mother, teacher, brother, friend, kubera and yama. A strong king has been favoured by ancient thinkers but not an absolute or arbitrary one. A long list of dos and don'ts is prescribed. The king must shun vices and passions as these will take him away from the path of duty. A king should act according to the dictates of Dharma, a king who disregards Dharma and acts in an arbitrary and wanton manner is soon destroyed. The oath taken by king Prithvi contains very explicit reference to the kings duty to observe law and administer justice. The entire process of the governance is seen as an activity to ensure the government of Law. The powers, privileges and prerogatives conferred on the king are meant to promote public good.

Prof. U.N. Ghoshal says that no aspect of the state administration in ancient India is so striking in its modernity as the policy for the promotion of public welfare. The following measures for ensuring public welfare are note worthy:

1. Certain classes of persons i.e. students and teachers and scholars, women of all castes, people engaged in menial work, blind and other crippled people are declared to be altogether exempt from taxation.

2. Kautilya diseases a comprehensive programme for relief of the public against human and providential calamities. These include public protection against anti-social elements, state control over marketing operations, state relief against fire, flood, famine, disease, pests and ferocious animals, inquest into causes of sudden death. etc.

3. The state is required to provide food, shelter, clothing, medicine for the needy.

4. The state is charged with the definite policy of promotion of public health. For the purpose state has to ban unwholesome food and medicine, state has to have strict control over practicing physicians, state has to provide for medical treatment of the people.

Great emphasis has been laid on the intellectual and moral qualifies of the king. A wise and virtuous rule alone has the capacity to wills the rod of authority. Manu says that a king who does not uphold dharma and serve his people is bound to be destroyed. Thus Prof. Kewal Motwani says that in ancient Indian political thought, emphasis has been laid on the divinity of king and not on the divine rights of kings. The second organ of state is the council of ministers. The vedic 'Samhitas' and 'Brahmans' aquaint us with the designations of civil and military officials as well as the officials of the central and local governments. For the members of the council of ministers, the terms 'Amatya' or 'Sachiva' has been used. Manu says that without the advice and assistance of able ministers it is well-nigh impossible for the king to govern.

The strength of the council of ministers should be 7 or 8. The ministers must come from respectable families, they should be well-versed in shastras, and they should be fearless, impartial, patriotic, self-less and committed to the good of state and its people. Underlining the importance of competent ministers, Shukra says 'can these be prosperity of the kingdom if there be ministers whom the king does not fear? Such ministers are to be gratified with decoration, liveries of honour etc." In the discharge of his duties, the king must be guided by the advice of his ministers and wisemen. He must consult his ministers on matters relating to war and peace, sources of tax, general prosperity of the realm. In this connection, the significance of the office of 'Purohit' is note-worthy. 'Purohit' is the chief preceptor and guide of the king. Kautilya says that the king shall honour the advice of his 'Purohit' as a pupil honours the advice of his teacher, a son that of his father and a servant that of his master.

Purohit credited with both temporal and spiritual functions was a great check on the arbitrariness great influence on the policies and decisions of chandragupta Maurya, and Samarth Ramdas, to a great extent, fulfilled the same role vis-a-vis shivaji. The third organ of state is 'Rastra' which stands for the culturally homogenous people residing on a definite territory. The term occurs in vedas, and in 'Atharv Veda' many hymns to motherland are found in which Mother Earth has been requested to confer virtue and valour to the inhabitants. Kamandaka says that Rastra is the origin and source of all other organs of state and therefore the king should take every step to enrich the motherland and its inhabitants. Manu ponders over the geographical and physical requirements of a good state.

The land should be fertile, climate should be favourable , the territory should not be prone to diseases and pestilence, famine and flood. The moral character of the inhabitants has also been emphasized. The atheists and heretics who pollute the ethical environment are to be excluded from the realm. The 'Dharma Sutras' and 'Artha Shastra' against us with the divisions of the kingdom under two heads - rural and urban areas. Officers are placed in charge of reach area. The rural officers are entrusted with the maintenance of law and order, with the preparation of census lists and administration of rural treasuries.

Special officers are appointed for the administration of justice in rural areas. The urban officers are entrusted with the maintenance of law and order, the enforcement of building and sanitary regulations, and compilation of census lists of citizens. Separate officers are stationed in metropolitan and in other towns for the collection of the customs duties, for the management of the state treasuries, for the administration of justice and so forth